Judges, Magistrate Judges, and Magistrates
Legal Occupations- O*NET-SOC code
- 23-1023.00
Arbitrate, advise, adjudicate, or administer justice in a court of law. May sentence defendant in criminal cases according to government statutes or sentencing guidelines. May determine liability of defendant in civil cases. May perform wedding ceremonies.
- Data source: BLSPublished: 2026-08
High· relative
LowFour relative bandsVery highGroup-level value
Scale, basis and source
Four relative bands (Low / Moderate / High / Very high)
831 detailed occupations in the BLS Employment Projections table. Assigned per National Employment Matrix (NEM) code, so occupations sharing a NEM code carry the same band
- Data source: AnthropicPublished: 2026-03
0.311
0.000Range of values carried here0.745Scale, basis and source
Observed exposure index, 0–1 as published
Mapped onto O*NET tasks
Published per SOC 2018 occupation; every O*NET occupation with the same SOC 2018 code carries this value
- Data source: ILOPublished: 2025
0.31
0.09Range of values carried here0.70Group-level value
Scale, basis and source
Generative AI exposure index, 0–1 as published
Published per ISCO-08 unit group. Linked to this occupation, wholly or in part, by applying U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics crosswalks (ISCO-08 to 2010 SOC, 2010 SOC to 2018 SOC) as published
What kind of figure this source publishes
The BLS category is a relative rank, not an absolute level, and it is not a first-hand measurement: it groups an occupation's percentile ranks across several published studies into four bands. It is not an employment or wage forecast, not a probability of adoption, and it does not separate automation from augmentation.
Task-level exposure
Exposed tasks only21 rated tasks · 17 tasks with β ≥ 0.5 (81.0%)
β = direct exposure (E1) + 0.5 × exposure when tools are available (E2), per the source repository's definition.
- Source unit: O*NET 27.2 tasks → O*NET 31.0 occupation code
- All rated tasks are in the O*NET 31.0 task list.
- Source
- OpenAI "GPTs are GPTs" exposure rubric
- Release
- gh-main-0471612
- License
- MIT License, Copyright (c) 2024 OpenAI
Values in this tab are predicted labels, not observations. Eloundou et al. (2023) published two rating regimes — human raters and GPT-4 — and the β shown here is derived from the GPT-4 rater basis alone; the same task can take a different value under the other regime. The unit and the meaning differ from the observed shares (%) in the other tabs, so do not place them on the same axis.
| Task (O*NET 27.2) | βE1 + 0.5 × E2 |
|---|---|
Sentence defendants in criminal cases, on conviction by jury, according to applicable government statutes.O*NET Task ID 5644 | 0.5 |
Rule on admissibility of evidence and methods of conducting testimony.O*NET Task ID 5645 | 0.5 |
Preside over hearings and listen to allegations made by plaintiffs to determine whether the evidence supports the charges.O*NET Task ID 5646 | 0.5 |
Read documents on pleadings and motions to ascertain facts and issues.O*NET Task ID 5647 | 0.5 |
Interpret and enforce rules of procedure or establish new rules in situations where there are no procedures already established by law.O*NET Task ID 5648 | 0.5 |
Monitor proceedings to ensure that all applicable rules and procedures are followed.O*NET Task ID 5649 | 0.5 |
Advise attorneys, juries, litigants, and court personnel regarding conduct, issues, and proceedings.O*NET Task ID 5650 | 0.5 |
Research legal issues and write opinions on the issues.O*NET Task ID 5651 | 0.5 |
Conduct preliminary hearings to decide issues, such as whether there is reasonable and probable cause to hold defendants in felony cases.O*NET Task ID 5652 | 0.5 |
Write decisions on cases.O*NET Task ID 5653 | 0.5 |
Award compensation for damages to litigants in civil cases in relation to findings by juries or by the court.O*NET Task ID 5654 | 0.5 |
Settle disputes between opposing attorneys.O*NET Task ID 5655 | 0.5 |
Impose restrictions upon parties in civil cases until trials can be held.O*NET Task ID 5657 | 0.5 |
Rule on custody and access disputes, and enforce court orders regarding custody and support of children.O*NET Task ID 5658 | 0.5 |
Grant divorces and divide assets between spouses.O*NET Task ID 5659 | 0.5 |
Provide information regarding the judicial system or other legal issues through the media and public speeches.O*NET Task ID 20057 | 0.5 |
Issue arrest warrants.O*NET Task ID 21182 | 0.5 |
Instruct juries on applicable laws, direct juries to deduce the facts from the evidence presented, and hear their verdicts.O*NET Task ID 5643 | 0.0 |
Supervise other judges, court officers, and the court's administrative staff.O*NET Task ID 5656 | 0.0 |
Participate in judicial tribunals to help resolve disputes.O*NET Task ID 5660 | 0.0 |
Perform wedding ceremonies.O*NET Task ID 5661 | 0.0 |
β = E1 + 0.5 × E2 · E1 = tasks where direct LLM access alone cuts time by at least 50%, E2 = tasks where software built on top of an LLM cuts time by at least 50%. Values take only 0 / 0.5 / 1.0.
Data sources & licenses — O*NET®, Eloundou et al. (2023): see full notices on the Credits page
All O*NET 31.0 task statements (21)
All O*NET 31.0 task statements for this occupation (English, as published; task type core or supplemental). Exposure values are not listed here; they are in the table above, next to each task statement as worded in the O*NET version each source used.
| Task (O*NET 31.0) | Type |
|---|---|
| Instruct juries on applicable laws, direct juries to deduce the facts from the evidence presented, and hear their verdicts. | Core |
| Sentence defendants in criminal cases, on conviction by jury, according to applicable government statutes. | Core |
| Rule on admissibility of evidence and methods of conducting testimony. | Core |
| Preside over hearings and listen to allegations made by plaintiffs to determine whether the evidence supports the charges. | Core |
| Read documents on pleadings and motions to ascertain facts and issues. | Core |
| Interpret and enforce rules of procedure or establish new rules in situations where there are no procedures already established by law. | Core |
| Monitor proceedings to ensure that all applicable rules and procedures are followed. | Core |
| Advise attorneys, juries, litigants, and court personnel regarding conduct, issues, and proceedings. | Core |
| Research legal issues and write opinions on the issues. | Core |
| Write decisions on cases. | Core |
| Award compensation for damages to litigants in civil cases in relation to findings by juries or by the court. | Core |
| Settle disputes between opposing attorneys. | Core |
| Supervise other judges, court officers, and the court's administrative staff. | Core |
| Impose restrictions upon parties in civil cases until trials can be held. | Core |
| Issue arrest warrants. | Core |
| Conduct preliminary hearings to decide issues, such as whether there is reasonable and probable cause to hold defendants in felony cases. | Supplemental |
| Rule on custody and access disputes, and enforce court orders regarding custody and support of children. | Supplemental |
| Grant divorces and divide assets between spouses. | Supplemental |
| Participate in judicial tribunals to help resolve disputes. | Supplemental |
| Perform wedding ceremonies. | Supplemental |
| Provide information regarding the judicial system or other legal issues through the media and public speeches. | Supplemental |
0.00/ 3· Robot exposure index
Scale, basis and source
Each physical task is graded 0–3 by the setting in which robots that have been deployed, sold or demonstrated could do it (0 none · 1 purpose-built robot settings such as a fenced machine cell or a bottling line · 2 structured facilities such as a hospital pharmacy or a container port · 3 unstructured settings such as a private home or a construction site), and the grades are averaged by share of working time
Physical tasks among this occupation's O*NET 29.3 tasks
Anthropic estimated the grades and time shares with Claude Opus 5 using web search, as of 2026.
The robot exposure index is a different measure from the AI exposure figures on this site and cannot be added to or compared with them. It does not measure actual adoption or cost, and 0 also covers occupations with no physical tasks.
Tier of each physical task
None of this occupation's O*NET 29.3 tasks is classified as a physical task.
Occupation information
Employment outlook (BLS)
- Employment, 2025
- 25K
- Projected employment, 2035
- 26K
- Change (2025–35)
- +2.8%
- Median annual wage, 2025
- $153,990
- Typical education needed for entry
- Doctoral or professional degree
Korea classification links (KSCO)
Links from the current release of the Korea Occupation Direct Crosswalk v1.1, made by AI Changing Work. Relation values are read from the O*NET-SOC occupation side.
| KSCO code | KSCO title | Relation | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| 27111 | 판사 | Same scope | confirmed |
| 13131 | 법률 관리자 | Related, not a match | confirmed |
Relation and status definitions(kr-direct v1.1)
ILO occupational description
AI Changing Work links the ISCO-08 unit groups below to this occupation by applying the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics crosswalks (2018 SOC to 2010 SOC, 2010 SOC to ISCO-08) as published, without case-by-case selection; each link may be whole or partial.
- ISCO-08 2612Judges
The definition, tasks and examples below are the ILO's description of that unit group, not of this occupation.
Judges preside over civil and criminal proceedings in courts of law.
Tasks
- (a) presiding over trials and hearings;
- (b) interpreting and enforcing rules of procedure and making rulings regarding the admissibility of evidence;
- (c) determining the rights and obligations of the parties involved, and, in cases tried by jury;
- (d) instructing the jury on points of law that are applicable to the case;
- (e) weighing and considering evidence in non-jury trials and deciding legal guilt or innocence or degree of liability of the accused or defendant;
- (f) passing sentence on persons convicted in criminal cases, determining damages or other appropriate remedy in civil cases and issuing court orders;
- (g) researching legal issues and writing opinions on the issues.
Example occupations
Chief justice · Judge · Magistrate
Sources: ILO ISCO-08 — details: Credits
ESCO occupational vocabulary
Each entry below is matched to this occupation in the published ESCO-O*NET Crosswalk (version 1, 2022). The match types are that crosswalk's; the wording is AI Changing Work's.
- judgeESCO 2612.1Same scope
Judges preside over, review and handle court cases, hearings, appeals and trials. They ensure that court procedures conform to conventional legal processes and review evidence and juries. Judges preside over cases involving such areas as crime, family issues, civil law, small claims and juvenile offenses.
- justice of the peaceESCO 2612.2This occupation is broader
Justices of the peace deal with small claims and disputes, and minor offences. They ensure the keeping of the peace within their jurisdiction, and provide mediation between disputing parties.
- supreme court judgeESCO 2612.1.1This occupation is broader
Supreme court judges preside in high courts, dealing with complex criminal and civil cases. They examine the case during trials in order to formulate a sentence or to direct a jury in reaching a conclusion, and decide on any punishments if an offending party is found guilty. They rule proceedings and ensure the trial is held in a fair manner compliant with legislation.
Source: European Commission, DG EMPL — ESCO API 2026-08-08 (bridge v1.2.1)
License: CC BY 4.0 (EU Reuse Notice)
ESCO reuse terms and the modification notice are in Credits.
France classification links (ROME)
AI Changing Work's links between this occupation and ROME 4.0 job profiles, judged with AI models. Relations are read from this occupation's side. Links marked “provisional” were adopted on the judgments of two judges from the same model family (Claude) alone, or by an operator rule applied to their judgments, so they rest on weaker evidence than confirmed links.
| ROME code | ROME title (French) | Relation |
|---|---|---|
| K1904 | Juge | Same scopeprovisional |
Source: France Travail — Répertoire Opérationnel des Métiers et des Emplois (ROME 4.0), version 61, last updated 15 June 2026 (https://www.data.gouv.fr/datasets/repertoire-operationnel-des-metiers-et-des-emplois-rome). Licence Ouverte 2.0.
ROME codes and titles are reproduced unchanged; the links to O*NET-SOC occupations are AI Changing Work's own judgment and are not a France Travail correspondence.
(AI Changing Work link release: fr-direct v1)
Spain classification links (CNO-11)
AI Changing Work's links between this occupation and CNO-11 occupations, judged with AI models. Relations are read from this occupation's side.
| CNO-11 code | CNO-11 title (Spanish) | Relation |
|---|---|---|
| 2513 | Jueces y magistrados | Same scope |
| 3711 | Profesionales de apoyo de servicios jurídicos y servicios similares | Related, not a match |
Source: Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE), National Classification of Occupations 2011 (CNO-11, Royal Decree 1591/2010) — www.ine.es · Licensed CC BY 4.0. CNO-11 codes and Spanish titles are reproduced unchanged; the links to O*NET occupations are AI Changing Work's own judgment and are not an INE correspondence.
(AI Changing Work link release: es-direct v1)
Germany classification links (KldB)
AI Changing Work's links between this occupation and KldB occupations, judged with AI models. Relations are read from this occupation's side.
| KldB code | KldB title (German) | Relation |
|---|---|---|
| 73154 | Richter/innen - hoch komplexe Tätigkeiten | Same scopeprovisional |
Source: © Statistik der Bundesagentur für Arbeit — Klassifikation der Berufe 2010 – überarbeitete Fassung 2020, https://statistik.arbeitsagentur.de. KldB codes and titles are reproduced unchanged; the links to O*NET occupations are AI Changing Work's own mapping (eigene Zuordnung) and are not a Bundesagentur für Arbeit correspondence.
(AI Changing Work link release: de-direct v1)
Japan classification links (JSCO)
AI Changing Work's links between this occupation and JSCO occupations, judged with AI models. Relations are read from this occupation's side.
| JSCO code | JSCO title (Japanese) | Relation |
|---|---|---|
| 171 | 裁判官 | Same scopeprovisional |
Source: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC), Japan Standard Occupational Classification (Dec. 2009, MIC Notification No. 555). JSCO codes and Japanese titles are reproduced unchanged; the links to O*NET occupations are AI Changing Work's own judgment and are not a MIC correspondence.
(AI Changing Work link release: jp-direct v1)
Recent Changes Related to This Occupation
Summaries and relation labels are AI Changing Work's own; check any figures against the linked source.
Related Same paper assigns ATE 0.43 by 2027 in SF Bay Tier 1. 100% of legal occupations in scope cross moderate-risk threshold by 2027 in Tier 1; only 14.3% cross in Tier 3 (New York) by 2030.
[Source: arXiv 2604.00186 (Gupta & Kumar, 2026)]Directly related ATE framework identifies judges among highest-risk occupations (ATE 0.43-0.47) for agentic AI displacement — AI systems increasingly capable of end-to-end legal reasoning workflows.
[Source: Gupta & Kumar (2026) Agentic AI and Occupational Displacement]
Sources, licenses and AI Changing Work's modification and translation notices for this page: Credits & sources