Judges, Magistrate Judges, and Magistrates

O*NET-SOC code: 23-1023.00

Arbitrate, advise, adjudicate, or administer justice in a court of law. May sentence defendant in criminal cases according to government statutes or sentencing guidelines. May determine liability of defendant in civil cases. May perform wedding ceremonies.

Data source: BLSPublished: 2026-08
High· relative
LowFour relative bandsVery high
Group-level value
Scale, basis and source
Four relative bands (Low / Moderate / High / Very high)
831 detailed occupations in the BLS Employment Projections table. Assigned per National Employment Matrix (NEM) code, so occupations sharing a NEM code carry the same band
Source dataset (XLSX download)
Data source: AnthropicPublished: 2026-03
0.311
0.000Range of values carried here0.745
Scale, basis and source
Observed exposure index, 0–1 as published
Mapped onto O*NET tasks
Published per SOC 2018 occupation; every O*NET occupation with the same SOC 2018 code carries this value
Source dataset (CSV download)
Data source: ILOPublished: 2025
0.31
0.09Range of values carried here0.70
Group-level value
Scale, basis and source
Generative AI exposure index, 0–1 as published
Published per ISCO-08 unit group. Linked to this occupation, wholly or in part, by applying U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics crosswalks (ISCO-08 to 2010 SOC, 2010 SOC to 2018 SOC) as published
Source dataset (PDF download)

What kind of figure this source publishes

The BLS category is a relative rank, not an absolute level, and it is not a first-hand measurement: it groups an occupation's percentile ranks across several published studies into four bands. It is not an employment or wage forecast, not a probability of adoption, and it does not separate automation from augmentation.

Task-level exposure

Exposed tasks only

21 rated tasks · 17 tasks with β ≥ 0.5 (81.0%)

β = direct exposure (E1) + 0.5 × exposure when tools are available (E2), per the source repository's definition.

Source unit: O*NET 27.2 tasks → O*NET 31.0 occupation code
All rated tasks are in the O*NET 31.0 task list.

Source: OpenAI "GPTs are GPTs" exposure rubric
Release: gh-main-0471612
License: MIT License, Copyright (c) 2024 OpenAI

Task (O*NET 20.1)	Claude.aiRaw / share %
Write decisions on cases. 23-1023.00	0.019741.4
Research legal issues and write opinions on the issues. 23-1023.00	0.009419.7
Provide information regarding the judicial system or other legal issues through the media and public speeches. 23-1023.00	0.009018.9
Read documents on pleadings and motions to ascertain facts and issues. 23-1023.00	0.006012.6
Advise attorneys, juries, litigants, and court personnel regarding conduct, issues, and proceedings. 23-1023.00	0.00357.4
Not observed on any surface — 15 task(s) — These tasks have no row in the source for this release. The 0 in the share row is a display-stage composition ratio; absence is what the — in the raw row states.
Instruct juries on applicable laws, direct juries to deduce the facts from the evidence presented, and hear their verdicts.	—0
Rule on admissibility of evidence and methods of conducting testimony.	—0
Preside over hearings and listen to allegations made by plaintiffs to determine whether the evidence supports the charges.	—0
Interpret and enforce rules of procedure or establish new rules in situations where there are no procedures already established by law.	—0
Monitor proceedings to ensure that all applicable rules and procedures are followed.	—0
Award compensation for damages to litigants in civil cases in relation to findings by juries or by the court.	—0
Settle disputes between opposing attorneys.	—0
Impose restrictions upon parties in civil cases until trials can be held.	—0
Sentence defendants in criminal cases, on conviction by jury, according to applicable government statutes.	—0
Conduct preliminary hearings to decide issues such as whether there is reasonable and probable cause to hold defendants in felony cases.	—0
Supervise other judges, court officers, and the court's administrative staff.	—0
Rule on custody and access disputes, and enforce court orders regarding custody and support of children.	—0
Grant divorces and divide assets between spouses.	—0
Participate in judicial tribunals to help resolve disputes.	—0
Perform wedding ceremonies.	—0

Values in this tab are predicted labels, not observations. Eloundou et al. (2023) published two rating regimes — human raters and GPT-4 — and the β shown here is derived from the GPT-4 rater basis alone; the same task can take a different value under the other regime. The unit and the meaning differ from the observed shares (%) in the other tabs, so do not place them on the same axis.

Task (O*NET 27.2)	βE1 + 0.5 × E2
Sentence defendants in criminal cases, on conviction by jury, according to applicable government statutes. O*NET Task ID 5644	0.5
Rule on admissibility of evidence and methods of conducting testimony. O*NET Task ID 5645	0.5
Preside over hearings and listen to allegations made by plaintiffs to determine whether the evidence supports the charges. O*NET Task ID 5646	0.5
Read documents on pleadings and motions to ascertain facts and issues. O*NET Task ID 5647	0.5
Interpret and enforce rules of procedure or establish new rules in situations where there are no procedures already established by law. O*NET Task ID 5648	0.5
Monitor proceedings to ensure that all applicable rules and procedures are followed. O*NET Task ID 5649	0.5
Advise attorneys, juries, litigants, and court personnel regarding conduct, issues, and proceedings. O*NET Task ID 5650	0.5
Research legal issues and write opinions on the issues. O*NET Task ID 5651	0.5
Conduct preliminary hearings to decide issues, such as whether there is reasonable and probable cause to hold defendants in felony cases. O*NET Task ID 5652	0.5
Write decisions on cases. O*NET Task ID 5653	0.5
Award compensation for damages to litigants in civil cases in relation to findings by juries or by the court. O*NET Task ID 5654	0.5
Settle disputes between opposing attorneys. O*NET Task ID 5655	0.5
Impose restrictions upon parties in civil cases until trials can be held. O*NET Task ID 5657	0.5
Rule on custody and access disputes, and enforce court orders regarding custody and support of children. O*NET Task ID 5658	0.5
Grant divorces and divide assets between spouses. O*NET Task ID 5659	0.5
Provide information regarding the judicial system or other legal issues through the media and public speeches. O*NET Task ID 20057	0.5
Issue arrest warrants. O*NET Task ID 21182	0.5
Show 7 more tasks ▾Show less ▴
Instruct juries on applicable laws, direct juries to deduce the facts from the evidence presented, and hear their verdicts. O*NET Task ID 5643	0.0
Supervise other judges, court officers, and the court's administrative staff. O*NET Task ID 5656	0.0
Participate in judicial tribunals to help resolve disputes. O*NET Task ID 5660	0.0
Perform wedding ceremonies. O*NET Task ID 5661	0.0

β = E1 + 0.5 × E2 · E1 = tasks where direct LLM access alone cuts time by at least 50%, E2 = tasks where software built on top of an LLM cuts time by at least 50%. Values take only 0 / 0.5 / 1.0.

Data sources & licenses — O*NET®, Anthropic Economic Index, Eloundou et al. (2023): see full notices on the Credits page

All O*NET 31.0 task statements (21)

All O*NET 31.0 task statements for this occupation (English, as published; task type core or supplemental). Exposure values are not listed here; they are in the table above, next to each task statement as worded in the O*NET version each source used.

Task (O*NET 31.0)	Type
Instruct juries on applicable laws, direct juries to deduce the facts from the evidence presented, and hear their verdicts.	Core
Sentence defendants in criminal cases, on conviction by jury, according to applicable government statutes.	Core
Rule on admissibility of evidence and methods of conducting testimony.	Core
Preside over hearings and listen to allegations made by plaintiffs to determine whether the evidence supports the charges.	Core
Read documents on pleadings and motions to ascertain facts and issues.	Core
Interpret and enforce rules of procedure or establish new rules in situations where there are no procedures already established by law.	Core
Monitor proceedings to ensure that all applicable rules and procedures are followed.	Core
Advise attorneys, juries, litigants, and court personnel regarding conduct, issues, and proceedings.	Core
Research legal issues and write opinions on the issues.	Core
Write decisions on cases.	Core
Award compensation for damages to litigants in civil cases in relation to findings by juries or by the court.	Core
Settle disputes between opposing attorneys.	Core
Supervise other judges, court officers, and the court's administrative staff.	Core
Impose restrictions upon parties in civil cases until trials can be held.	Core
Issue arrest warrants.	Core
Conduct preliminary hearings to decide issues, such as whether there is reasonable and probable cause to hold defendants in felony cases.	Supplemental
Rule on custody and access disputes, and enforce court orders regarding custody and support of children.	Supplemental
Grant divorces and divide assets between spouses.	Supplemental
Participate in judicial tribunals to help resolve disputes.	Supplemental
Perform wedding ceremonies.	Supplemental
Provide information regarding the judicial system or other legal issues through the media and public speeches.	Supplemental

Employment outlook (BLS)

Employment, 2025: 25K
Projected employment, 2035: 26K
Change (2025–35): +2.8%
Median annual wage, 2025: $153,990
Typical education needed for entry: Doctoral or professional degree

lowest $30,890median wage across 825 detailed occupations, BLS EP 2025–35highest $559,030

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment Projections 2025–35 — Employment by detailed occupation, 2025 and projected 2035

Korea classification links (KSCO)

Links from the current release of the Korea Occupation Direct Crosswalk v1.1, made by AI Changing Work. Relation values are read from the O*NET-SOC occupation side.

KSCO code	KSCO title	Relation	Status
27111	판사	Same scope	confirmed
13131	법률 관리자	Related, not a match	confirmed

Relation and status definitions(kr-direct v1.1)

ILO occupational description

AI Changing Work links the ISCO-08 unit groups below to this occupation by applying the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics crosswalks (2018 SOC to 2010 SOC, 2010 SOC to ISCO-08) as published, without case-by-case selection; each link may be whole or partial.

ISCO-08 2612Judges

The definition, tasks and examples below are the ILO's description of that unit group, not of this occupation.

Judges preside over civil and criminal proceedings in courts of law.

Tasks

(a) presiding over trials and hearings;
(b) interpreting and enforcing rules of procedure and making rulings regarding the admissibility of evidence;
(c) determining the rights and obligations of the parties involved, and, in cases tried by jury;
(d) instructing the jury on points of law that are applicable to the case;
(e) weighing and considering evidence in non-jury trials and deciding legal guilt or innocence or degree of liability of the accused or defendant;
(f) passing sentence on persons convicted in criminal cases, determining damages or other appropriate remedy in civil cases and issuing court orders;
(g) researching legal issues and writing opinions on the issues.

Example occupations

Chief justice · Judge · Magistrate

Sources: ILO ISCO-08 — details: Credits

ESCO occupational vocabulary

Each entry below is matched to this occupation in the published ESCO-O*NET Crosswalk (version 1, 2022). The match types are that crosswalk's; the wording is AI Changing Work's.

judgeESCO 2612.1Same scope
Judges preside over, review and handle court cases, hearings, appeals and trials. They ensure that court procedures conform to conventional legal processes and review evidence and juries. Judges preside over cases involving such areas as crime, family issues, civil law, small claims and juvenile offenses.
justice of the peaceESCO 2612.2This occupation is broader
Justices of the peace deal with small claims and disputes, and minor offences. They ensure the keeping of the peace within their jurisdiction, and provide mediation between disputing parties.
supreme court judgeESCO 2612.1.1This occupation is broader
Supreme court judges preside in high courts, dealing with complex criminal and civil cases. They examine the case during trials in order to formulate a sentence or to direct a jury in reaching a conclusion, and decide on any punishments if an offending party is found guilty. They rule proceedings and ensure the trial is held in a fair manner compliant with legislation.

Source: European Commission, DG EMPL — ESCO API 2026-08-08 (bridge v1.2.1)

License: CC BY 4.0 (EU Reuse Notice)

View original

ESCO reuse terms and the modification notice are in Credits.

France classification links (ROME)

AI Changing Work's links between this occupation and ROME 4.0 job profiles, judged with AI models. Relations are read from this occupation's side. Links marked “provisional” were adopted on the judgments of two judges from the same model family (Claude) alone, or by an operator rule applied to their judgments, so they rest on weaker evidence than confirmed links.

ROME code	ROME title (French)	Relation
K1904	Juge	Same scopeprovisional

Source: France Travail — Répertoire Opérationnel des Métiers et des Emplois (ROME 4.0), version 61, last updated 15 June 2026 (https://www.data.gouv.fr/datasets/repertoire-operationnel-des-metiers-et-des-emplois-rome). Licence Ouverte 2.0.

ROME codes and titles are reproduced unchanged; the links to O*NET-SOC occupations are AI Changing Work's own judgment and are not a France Travail correspondence.

(AI Changing Work link release: fr-direct v1)

Spain classification links (CNO-11)

AI Changing Work's links between this occupation and CNO-11 occupations, judged with AI models. Relations are read from this occupation's side.

CNO-11 code	CNO-11 title (Spanish)	Relation
2513	Jueces y magistrados	Same scope
3711	Profesionales de apoyo de servicios jurídicos y servicios similares	Related, not a match

Source: Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE), National Classification of Occupations 2011 (CNO-11, Royal Decree 1591/2010) — www.ine.es · Licensed CC BY 4.0. CNO-11 codes and Spanish titles are reproduced unchanged; the links to O*NET occupations are AI Changing Work's own judgment and are not an INE correspondence.

(AI Changing Work link release: es-direct v1)

Germany classification links (KldB)

AI Changing Work's links between this occupation and KldB occupations, judged with AI models. Relations are read from this occupation's side.

KldB code	KldB title (German)	Relation
73154	Richter/innen - hoch komplexe Tätigkeiten	Same scopeprovisional

Source: © Statistik der Bundesagentur für Arbeit — Klassifikation der Berufe 2010 – überarbeitete Fassung 2020, https://statistik.arbeitsagentur.de. KldB codes and titles are reproduced unchanged; the links to O*NET occupations are AI Changing Work's own mapping (eigene Zuordnung) and are not a Bundesagentur für Arbeit correspondence.

(AI Changing Work link release: de-direct v1)

Japan classification links (JSCO)

AI Changing Work's links between this occupation and JSCO occupations, judged with AI models. Relations are read from this occupation's side.

JSCO code	JSCO title (Japanese)	Relation
171	裁判官	Same scopeprovisional

Source: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC), Japan Standard Occupational Classification (Dec. 2009, MIC Notification No. 555). JSCO codes and Japanese titles are reproduced unchanged; the links to O*NET occupations are AI Changing Work's own judgment and are not a MIC correspondence.

(AI Changing Work link release: jp-direct v1)

Recent Changes Related to This Occupation

Summaries and relation labels are AI Changing Work's own; check any figures against the linked source.

RelatedMar 2026: Same paper assigns ATE 0.43 by 2027 in SF Bay Tier 1. 100% of legal occupations in scope cross moderate-risk threshold by 2027 in Tier 1; only 14.3% cross in Tier 3 (New York) by 2030.
[Source: arXiv 2604.00186 (Gupta & Kumar, 2026)]
Directly relatedMar 2026: ATE framework identifies judges among highest-risk occupations (ATE 0.43-0.47) for agentic AI displacement — AI systems increasingly capable of end-to-end legal reasoning workflows.
[Source: Gupta & Kumar (2026) Agentic AI and Occupational Displacement]

Sources, licenses and AI Changing Work's modification and translation notices for this page: Credits & sources