- O*NET-SOC code
- 19-2012.00
Conduct research into physical phenomena, develop theories on the basis of observation and experiments, and devise methods to apply physical laws and theories.
- Data source: BLSPublished: 2026-08
Very high· relative
LowFour relative bandsVery highGroup-level value
Scale, basis and source
Four relative bands (Low / Moderate / High / Very high)
831 detailed occupations in the BLS Employment Projections table. Assigned per National Employment Matrix (NEM) code, so occupations sharing a NEM code carry the same band
- Data source: AnthropicPublished: 2026-03
0.273
0.000Range of values carried here0.745Scale, basis and source
Observed exposure index, 0–1 as published
Mapped onto O*NET tasks
Published per SOC 2018 occupation; every O*NET occupation with the same SOC 2018 code carries this value
- Data source: ILOPublished: 2025
0.38
0.09Range of values carried here0.70Group-level value
Scale, basis and source
Generative AI exposure index, 0–1 as published
Published per ISCO-08 unit group. Linked to this occupation, wholly or in part, by applying U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics crosswalks (ISCO-08 to 2010 SOC, 2010 SOC to 2018 SOC) as published
What kind of figure this source publishes
The BLS category is a relative rank, not an absolute level, and it is not a first-hand measurement: it groups an occupation's percentile ranks across several published studies into four bands. It is not an employment or wage forecast, not a probability of adoption, and it does not separate automation from augmentation.
Task-level exposure
Show 1 hidden task15 rated tasks · 14 tasks with β ≥ 0.5 (93.3%)
β = direct exposure (E1) + 0.5 × exposure when tools are available (E2), per the source repository's definition.
- Source unit: O*NET 27.2 tasks → O*NET 31.0 occupation code
- All rated tasks are in the O*NET 31.0 task list.
- Source
- OpenAI "GPTs are GPTs" exposure rubric
- Release
- gh-main-0471612
- License
- MIT License, Copyright (c) 2024 OpenAI
Values in this tab are predicted labels, not observations. Eloundou et al. (2023) published two rating regimes — human raters and GPT-4 — and the β shown here is derived from the GPT-4 rater basis alone; the same task can take a different value under the other regime. The unit and the meaning differ from the observed shares (%) in the other tabs, so do not place them on the same axis.
| Task (O*NET 27.2) | βE1 + 0.5 × E2 |
|---|---|
Perform complex calculations as part of the analysis and evaluation of data, using computers.O*NET Task ID 10903 | 1.0 |
Describe and express observations and conclusions in mathematical terms.O*NET Task ID 10904 | 1.0 |
Report experimental results by writing papers for scientific journals or by presenting information at scientific conferences.O*NET Task ID 10906 | 1.0 |
Design computer simulations to model physical data so that it can be better understood.O*NET Task ID 10907 | 1.0 |
Develop theories and laws on the basis of observation and experiments, and apply these theories and laws to problems in areas such as nuclear energy, optics, and aerospace technology.O*NET Task ID 10911 | 1.0 |
Develop manufacturing, assembly, and fabrication processes of lasers, masers, infrared, and other light-emitting and light-sensitive devices.O*NET Task ID 10913 | 1.0 |
Write research proposals to receive funding.O*NET Task ID 21174 | 1.0 |
Analyze data from research conducted to detect and measure physical phenomena.O*NET Task ID 10905 | 0.5 |
Collaborate with other scientists in the design, development, and testing of experimental, industrial, or medical equipment, instrumentation, and procedures.O*NET Task ID 10908 | 0.5 |
Teach physics to students.O*NET Task ID 10912 | 0.5 |
Conduct application evaluations and analyze results to determine commercial, industrial, scientific, medical, military, or other uses for electro-optical devices.O*NET Task ID 10914 | 0.5 |
Develop standards of permissible concentrations of radioisotopes in liquids and gases.O*NET Task ID 10915 | 0.5 |
Conduct research pertaining to potential environmental impacts of atomic energy-related industrial development to determine licensing qualifications.O*NET Task ID 10916 | 0.5 |
Advise authorities of procedures to be followed in radiation incidents or hazards, and assist in civil defense planning.O*NET Task ID 10917 | 0.5 |
β = E1 + 0.5 × E2 · E1 = tasks where direct LLM access alone cuts time by at least 50%, E2 = tasks where software built on top of an LLM cuts time by at least 50%. Values take only 0 / 0.5 / 1.0.
Data sources & licenses — O*NET®, Eloundou et al. (2023): see full notices on the Credits page
All O*NET 31.0 task statements (16)
All O*NET 31.0 task statements for this occupation (English, as published; task type core or supplemental). Exposure values are not listed here; they are in the table above, next to each task statement as worded in the O*NET version each source used.
| Task (O*NET 31.0) | Type |
|---|---|
| Perform complex calculations as part of the analysis and evaluation of data, using computers. | Core |
| Describe and express observations and conclusions in mathematical terms. | Core |
| Analyze data from research conducted to detect and measure physical phenomena. | Core |
| Report experimental results by writing papers for scientific journals or by presenting information at scientific conferences. | Core |
| Design computer simulations to model physical data so that it can be better understood. | Core |
| Collaborate with other scientists in the design, development, and testing of experimental, industrial, or medical equipment, instrumentation, and procedures. | Core |
| Observe the structure and properties of matter, and the transformation and propagation of energy, using equipment such as masers, lasers, and telescopes, to explore and identify the basic principles governing these phenomena. | Core |
| Develop theories and laws on the basis of observation and experiments, and apply these theories and laws to problems in areas such as nuclear energy, optics, and aerospace technology. | Core |
| Teach physics to students. | Core |
| Write research proposals to receive funding. | Core |
| Perform peer reviews of scientific papers. | Core |
| Develop manufacturing, assembly, and fabrication processes of lasers, masers, infrared, and other light-emitting and light-sensitive devices. | Supplemental |
| Conduct application evaluations and analyze results to determine commercial, industrial, scientific, medical, military, or other uses for electro-optical devices. | Supplemental |
| Develop standards of permissible concentrations of radioisotopes in liquids and gases. | Supplemental |
| Conduct research pertaining to potential environmental impacts of atomic energy-related industrial development to determine licensing qualifications. | Supplemental |
| Advise authorities of procedures to be followed in radiation incidents or hazards, and assist in civil defense planning. | Supplemental |
0.12/ 3· Robot exposure index
Scale, basis and source
Each physical task is graded 0–3 by the setting in which robots that have been deployed, sold or demonstrated could do it (0 none · 1 purpose-built robot settings such as a fenced machine cell or a bottling line · 2 structured facilities such as a hospital pharmacy or a container port · 3 unstructured settings such as a private home or a construction site), and the grades are averaged by share of working time
Physical tasks among this occupation's O*NET 29.3 tasks
Anthropic estimated the grades and time shares with Claude Opus 5 using web search, as of 2026.
The robot exposure index is a different measure from the AI exposure figures on this site and cannot be added to or compared with them. It does not measure actual adoption or cost, and 0 also covers occupations with no physical tasks.
Tier of each physical task
Robot environment tiers (E0–E3)
E0 noneDetails
Rated not doable by robots that have been deployed, sold or demonstrated, even in a purpose-built setting
E1 purpose-built robot settingsDetails
Rated doable in a setting built around the machine, such as a fenced machine cell or a bottling line
E2 structured facilitiesDetails
Rated doable in a human work facility that an institution keeps to a working standard, such as a hospital pharmacy or a container port
E3 unstructured settingsDetails
Rated doable in a setting that no institution keeps to a working standard, such as a private home or a construction site
Only tasks classified as physical are listed; other tasks have no tier in the source.
| Task (O*NET 29.3) | Robot environment tier |
|---|---|
| Observe the structure and properties of matter, and the transformation and propagation of energy, using equipment such as masers, lasers, and telescopes, to explore and identify the basic principles governing these phenomena. | E1 purpose-built robot settings |
Occupation information
Employment outlook (BLS)
- Employment, 2025
- 23K
- Projected employment, 2035
- 25K
- Change (2025–35)
- +7.2%
- Median annual wage, 2025
- $172,250
- Typical education needed for entry
- Doctoral or professional degree
Korea classification links (KSCO)
Links from the current release of the Korea Occupation Direct Crosswalk v1.1, made by AI Changing Work. Relation values are read from the O*NET-SOC occupation side.
| KSCO code | KSCO title | Relation | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| 21121 | 물리학 연구원 | Same scope | confirmed |
Relation and status definitions(kr-direct v1.1)
ILO occupational description
AI Changing Work links the ISCO-08 unit groups below to this occupation by applying the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics crosswalks (2018 SOC to 2010 SOC, 2010 SOC to ISCO-08) as published, without case-by-case selection; each link may be whole or partial.
- ISCO-08 2111Physicists and Astronomers
The definition, tasks and examples below are the ILO's description of that unit group, not of this occupation.
Physicists and astronomers conduct research and improve or develop concepts, theories and operational methods concerning matter, space, time, energy, forces and fields and the interrelationship between these physical phenomena. They apply scientific knowledge relating to physics and astronomy in industrial, medical, military or other fields.
Tasks
- (a) conducting research and improving or developing concepts, theories, instrumentation, software and operational methods related to physics and astronomy;
- (b) conducting experiments, tests and analyses on the structure and properties of matter in fields such as mechanics, thermodynamics, electronics, communications, power generation and distribution, aerodynamics, optics and lasers, remote sensing, medicine, sonics, magnetism, and nuclear physics;
- (c) evaluating results of investigations and experiments and expressing conclusions, mainly using mathematical techniques and models;
- (d) applying principles, techniques and processes to develop or improve industrial, medical, military and other practical applications of the principles and techniques of physics or astronomy;
- (e) ensuring the safe and effective delivery of radiation (ionising and non-ionising) to patients to achieve a diagnostic or therapeutic result as prescribed by a medical practitioner;
- (f) ensuring the accurate measurement and characterization of physical quantities used in medical applications;
- (g) testing, commissioning and evaluating equipment used in applications such as imaging, medical treatment and dosimetry;
- (h) advising and consulting with medical practitioners and other health care professionals in optimizing the balance between the beneficial and deleterious effects of radiation;
- (i) observing, analysing and interpreting celestial phenomena and developing methods, numerical models and techniques to extend knowledge of fields such as navigation, satellite communication, space exploration, celestial bodies and cosmic radiation;
- (j) developing, implementing and maintaining standards and protocols for the measurement of physical phenomena and for the use of nuclear technology in industrial and medical applications;
- (k) preparing scientific papers and reports.
Example occupations
Astronomer · Medical Physicist · Nuclear Physicist · Physicist
Sources: ILO ISCO-08 — details: Credits
ESCO occupational vocabulary
Each entry below is matched to this occupation in the published ESCO-O*NET Crosswalk (version 1, 2022). The match types are that crosswalk's; the wording is AI Changing Work's.
- physicistESCO 2111.3Same scope
Physicists are scientists who study physical phenomena. They focus their research depending on their specialisation, which can range from atomic particle physics to the study of phenomena in the universe. They apply their findings for the improvement of society by contributing to the development of energy supplies, treatment of illness, game development, cutting-edge equipment, and daily use objects.
- biophysicistESCO 2131.4.4Overlapping, not the same
Biophysicists study the existing relation between living organisms and physics. They conduct research on living organisms based on the methods of physics that aim to explain the complexity of life, predict patterns, and draw conclusions about aspects of life. Biophysicists' research fields cover DNA, proteins, molecules, cells, and environments.
- mathematicianESCO 2120.5Overlapping, not the same
Mathematicians study and deepen existing mathematical theories in order to expand the knowledge and find new paradigms within the field. They can apply this knowledge to challenges presented in engineering and scientific projects in order to assure that measurements, quantities, and mathematic laws prove their viability.
Source: European Commission, DG EMPL — ESCO API 2026-08-08 (bridge v1.2.1)
License: CC BY 4.0 (EU Reuse Notice)
ESCO reuse terms and the modification notice are in Credits.
France classification links (ROME)
AI Changing Work's links between this occupation and ROME 4.0 job profiles, judged with AI models. Relations are read from this occupation's side. Links marked “provisional” were adopted on the judgments of two judges from the same model family (Claude) alone, or by an operator rule applied to their judgments, so they rest on weaker evidence than confirmed links.
| ROME code | ROME title (French) | Relation |
|---|---|---|
| K2402 | Ingénieur / Ingénieure de recherche scientifique | This occupation is narrowerprovisional |
| H1206 | Ingénieur / Ingénieure R&D en industrie | Related, not a matchprovisional |
| K2410 | Astrophysicien / Astrophysicienne | Related, not a matchprovisional |
Source: France Travail — Répertoire Opérationnel des Métiers et des Emplois (ROME 4.0), version 61, last updated 15 June 2026 (https://www.data.gouv.fr/datasets/repertoire-operationnel-des-metiers-et-des-emplois-rome). Licence Ouverte 2.0.
ROME codes and titles are reproduced unchanged; the links to O*NET-SOC occupations are AI Changing Work's own judgment and are not a France Travail correspondence.
(AI Changing Work link release: fr-direct v1)
Spain classification links (CNO-11)
AI Changing Work's links between this occupation and CNO-11 occupations, judged with AI models. Relations are read from this occupation's side.
| CNO-11 code | CNO-11 title (Spanish) | Relation |
|---|---|---|
| 2411 | Físicos y astrónomos | Same scopeprovisional |
Source: Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE), National Classification of Occupations 2011 (CNO-11, Royal Decree 1591/2010) — www.ine.es · Licensed CC BY 4.0. CNO-11 codes and Spanish titles are reproduced unchanged; the links to O*NET occupations are AI Changing Work's own judgment and are not an INE correspondence.
(AI Changing Work link release: es-direct v1)
Germany classification links (KldB)
AI Changing Work's links between this occupation and KldB occupations, judged with AI models. Relations are read from this occupation's side.
| KldB code | KldB title (German) | Relation |
|---|---|---|
| 41403 | Berufe in der Physik (ohne Spezialisierung) - komplexe Spezialistentätigkeiten | This occupation is broaderprovisional |
| 41404 | Berufe in der Physik (ohne Spezialisierung) - hoch komplexe Tätigkeiten | This occupation is broaderprovisional |
| 41484 | Berufe in der Physik (sonstige spezifische Tätigkeitsangabe) - hoch komplexe Tätigkeiten | This occupation is broaderprovisional |
Source: © Statistik der Bundesagentur für Arbeit — Klassifikation der Berufe 2010 – überarbeitete Fassung 2020, https://statistik.arbeitsagentur.de. KldB codes and titles are reproduced unchanged; the links to O*NET occupations are AI Changing Work's own mapping (eigene Zuordnung) and are not a Bundesagentur für Arbeit correspondence.
(AI Changing Work link release: de-direct v1)
Japan classification links (JSCO)
AI Changing Work's links between this occupation and JSCO occupations, judged with AI models. Relations are read from this occupation's side.
| JSCO code | JSCO title (Japanese) | Relation |
|---|---|---|
| 051 | 自然科学系研究者 | This occupation is narrower |
Source: Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC), Japan Standard Occupational Classification (Dec. 2009, MIC Notification No. 555). JSCO codes and Japanese titles are reproduced unchanged; the links to O*NET occupations are AI Changing Work's own judgment and are not a MIC correspondence.
(AI Changing Work link release: jp-direct v1)
Sources, licenses and AI Changing Work's modification and translation notices for this page: Credits & sources